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Copyright © 2025 Michael Herman (Bindloss, Alberta, Canada) – Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International Public License

The War of 1812 was a conflict fought from 1812 to 1815 primarily between the United States and Great Britain, with fighting concentrated in North America and at sea. It’s often described as a “second war of independence” by Americans and a defensive war by British North America (today’s Canada).

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1. Why the War Happened (Causes)

There wasn’t a single cause, but several overlapping ones:

🇬🇧 British actions

• Impressment: The British Royal Navy forcibly took sailors—many of whom were American—from U.S. ships to serve in the British navy.
• Trade restrictions: Britain limited U.S. trade with France during the Napoleonic Wars through blockades and orders in council.

🇺🇸 American motives

• National honor & sovereignty: Many Americans felt Britain was treating the U.S. like a former colony.
• Westward expansion: The U.S. accused Britain of supporting Indigenous resistance to American expansion in the Northwest Territory.
• War Hawks in Congress: Young politicians (like Henry Clay) pushed for war, some believing Canada could be easily conquered.

🪶 Indigenous resistance

• Indigenous nations, led in part by Tecumseh, opposed U.S. expansion and often allied with Britain, seeing them as the lesser threat.

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2. Who Fought

• United States
• British Empire
• British North America (Upper & Lower Canada) – militias and settlers
• Indigenous confederacies allied with Britain

Notably, Britain was preoccupied with Napoleon in Europe, which limited resources early in the war.

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3. Major Campaigns & Battles

🇨🇦 Canadian Front

• American invasions of Canada (1812–1813) failed.
• Key battles:
  • Queenston Heights (1812) – British and Indigenous forces repel U.S. invasion.
  • Battle of the Thames (1813) – U.S. victory; Tecumseh killed.
• Canadian militias played a major role in defense.

🌊 Naval War

• Early U.S. naval victories (e.g., USS Constitution).
• Battle of Lake Erie (1813) – U.S. victory; “We have met the enemy and they are ours.”

🔥 Chesapeake & Southern Campaigns

• Burning of Washington (1814): British forces burned the White House and Capitol.
• Battle of Baltimore (1814): U.S. successfully defended the city; inspired “The Star-Spangled Banner.”
• Battle of New Orleans (1815): Major U.S. victory led by Andrew Jackson—fought after the peace treaty was signed (news traveled slowly).

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4. How It Ended

📜 Treaty of Ghent (1814)

• Signed December 24, 1814.
• Restored pre-war borders (status quo ante bellum).
• Said nothing about impressment or neutral rights (the issues faded after Napoleon’s defeat).

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5. Consequences & Significance

🇺🇸 United States

• Surge of national pride and identity.
• Andrew Jackson becomes a national hero (and later president).
• Strengthened federal authority and military confidence.
• Accelerated decline of Indigenous resistance in the Midwest.

🇨🇦 Canada

• Strengthened sense of Canadian identity.
• Reinforced resistance to U.S. annexation.
• Elevated figures like Laura Secord and Isaac Brock (who died early in the war).

🪶 Indigenous Nations

• Major loss: Britain abandoned support after the war.
• Indigenous lands increasingly seized by U.S. expansion.

🇬🇧 Britain

• Achieved its main goal: defending Canada.
• The war was a minor sideshow compared to the Napoleonic Wars.

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6. Why It’s Remembered Differently

• United States: Seen as a successful defense of independence.
• Canada: Remembered as a victory that prevented U.S. conquest.
• Britain: Largely forgotten.
• Indigenous peoples: Viewed as a tragic turning point.

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7. One-Sentence Summary

The War of 1812 was a messy, inconclusive conflict that nonetheless reshaped national identities in the U.S. and Canada and decisively weakened Indigenous resistance in North America.