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The major questions doctrine is a principle of U.S. constitutional and administrative law that says:

Federal agencies cannot decide issues of vast economic or political significance unless Congress has clearly authorized them to do so.

In short:
If something is a big deal, Congress — not an agency — must speak clearly.

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Where It Comes From

The doctrine has been developed by the over several decades, but it was formally articulated and strengthened in:

In that case, the Court held that the lacked clear congressional authorization to implement a sweeping climate regulation under the Clean Air Act.

The Court said that when an agency claims power to:

• Restructure a major sector of the economy
• Make decisions of vast political significance
• Discover broad new authority in old statutory language

…courts should be skeptical unless Congress clearly granted that authority.

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Core Logic

The doctrine rests on separation of powers:

• Congress writes the laws.
• Agencies implement them.
• Agencies cannot use vague language in old statutes to claim major new powers.

The Court’s reasoning is that:

Congress does not “hide elephants in mouseholes.”

(That phrase originated in a different case but reflects the same idea.)

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How It Changes Administrative Law

Historically, courts often deferred to agencies under the Chevron doctrine (from ), which allowed agencies to interpret ambiguous statutes.

The major questions doctrine acts as a limit on that deference — essentially carving out an exception when the issue is “major.”

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Why It’s Controversial

Supporters argue:

• It protects democratic accountability.
• It prevents unelected bureaucrats from making sweeping policy decisions.
• It reinforces separation of powers.

Critics argue:

• It gives courts more power over agencies.
• It makes it harder for agencies to address modern problems (e.g., climate change, public health).
• It is not clearly grounded in constitutional text.

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In One Sentence

The major questions doctrine says:

When an agency wants to exercise extraordinary power over major political or economic issues, Congress must have clearly and explicitly authorized it.

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